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Feature: Education

Mobilizing the Curiosity, Attention, and Inventiveness of Future Materials Engineers, Part I: The Infinite Variability of Matter

Sead Spuzic and J. O'Brien

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It is deduced that accepting hypotheses on the infinity of material forms and the non-existence of a vacuum will reveal new and useful views on the study and teaching of materials engineering. When material forms are observed from galactic to microcosmic proportions, apparently immense differences in material properties become less confusing and from the depths of our growing knowledge surface inspiring analogies. Knowledgeable anticipation of the infinite variability in material forms is a powerful source of motivation, together with models that may be interpolated or extrapolated in required directions.

INTRODUCTION

Over time, a massive stock of information has been accumulated related to material forms and to science overall. Academic efforts to categorize sub-domains and fragments of knowledge into disciplines have certainly brought in the tides of progress in understanding the enormous variety of material forms and phenomena.

However, the vivisection of our environment, the enclosure within formal domains, has also raised some barriers. Recent trends in materials engineering, and in science in general, favor the de-specialization of knowledge and communication between initially separated disciplines. Inter-disciplinary communication has uncovered a variety of hindrances to the transfer of knowledge, such as special terms and abbreviations within isolated disciplines.

The body of knowledge records is growing faster than even the substance of knowledge itself, and it is increasingly difficult to manipulate, communicate, and transfer this voluminous structure of information. It can be questioned whether we are capable of accessing effectively and efficiently the whole body of knowledge accumulated by our ancestors. To state that the above phenomena present problems in education would be paradoxical. It is more appropriate to say that the growth of knowledge stock and the occurrence of cross-disciplinary communication are necessary, but not sufficient conditions for improving knowledge transfer.¹

The rapidly evolving studies into the nature of our environment are nowadays supported by vigorous improvements in information technology. Yet one of the fundamental questions in these endeavors (i.e., how to improve the capability of an individual (and a team) for accessing and interpreting information) remains unanswered. Artificial intelligence provides obvious remedies, but may also lead into vain labyrinths.

It becomes apparent that knowledge transfer is not limited by donors (e.g., teachers) or by modes and means of artificial intelligence: Limits are set by the ultimate recipients (the students).

There is no doubt about the importance of language in human thinking, teaching, learning and communication. As scientists continue to study the linguistic phenomena, they have recognized that flaws in terminology, including the presence of synonyms and homonyms, directly decrease the efficiency of knowledge communication. Synonyms and homonyms introduce vagueness and misunderstanding into communication and interpretation of knowledge. Their elimination should be carefully considered. It can be deduced that, mathematically speaking, contemporary languages are imperfect, or not sufficiently developed. This has become apparent during the development of programs for applications of artificial intelligence in materials engineering.

Could the multiplication in homonyms be avoided by ascribing a specific language to scientific disciplines, as was done by marrying Latin language to medicine? In this way, exaggerations in re-constructed terminology could be avoided (e.g., the term "methylpropenylenedihydroxy-cinnamenylacrylic acid" is obviously too lengthy). Furthermore, in materials sciences (as in other disciplines), numerous concepts and phenomena are described by combinations of nouns and adjectives; this increases both the duration of information transfer and the physical space required for storage. The large terms could be conveniently replaced by shorter terms, purposely selected from the existing semantic base. Is there a substantial need for simultaneous usage of numerous languages in science and engineering? The translations obviously increase the number of formal records. Do we really need to have the same knowledge written in Mandarin, French, Russian, Spanish, Czech, etc.? There is no doubt of the enormous advantages in the existence of a variety of languages-the question is, how can this treasure be made more useful? A spontaneous adoption of English in engineering sciences has already taken place. However, an imperative is that the intrinsic trend of adopting foreign words into English language has to be continued. It would be an oversimplification to state that one language, with its unique vocabulary, can satisfy all diverse human interests.

Another barrier to the transfer of knowledge is monotony. An antonym for monotony could be attractiveness. Although the norms for measuring attractiveness are quite diverse, there are certain commonly accepted criteria (e.g., dense, low-case paragraphs clearly appear hard to digest). Ways of reducing monotony, as well as its underlying causes, deserve to be addressed more closely.² Monotony is an indication that information is too diffused or does not convey the required point. An attractive presentation draws attention to and enhances retention of knowledge. Because the efficacy in transferring knowledge is clearly affected by the ways in which it is presented, monotony and ambiguity present important problems in engineering education.

The physiological basis of human brain functions is still far from being satisfactorily understood. Nevertheless, it is clear that memorizing large databases would be a senseless effort. We understand more by generalizing relationships, by creating a hierarchy of information, by selecting significant factors out of the large number of possible interactions, and by visualizing eloquent analogies.

For those mental performances a suitable metric is needed, a reference at a more general level that will enable 'touching the sea bed' and, at least mentally, 'reaching the sky'. It would be undoubtedly helpful if we could establish some measure (a norm) and define the finite limits of our accepted body of knowledge.

Is it possible to reach these limits?

COMPREHENDING ALTERNATIVE FORMS OF MATERIALS

Evidence is accumulating about the existence of ever more distant objects in "outer space"-using advanced observatories, clusters of galaxies are detected at ever-increasing distances (Figures 1, 2, and 3)^3-5. At the same time, we continue to reach further into the depths of "inner space," inside atoms (Figures 4, 5, 6, and 7)^6-9. Ever smaller sub-atomic particles emerge in accelerators with the same persistence as the ever more distant constellations are detected by telescopes.

Figure 1 presents an hourglass-shaped planetary nebula located about 8,000 light years away.³

The Andromeda Galaxy, M31, (Figure 2) is considered to be the nearest major galaxy to our own Milky Way. M31 dominates the small group of galaxies of which the Milky Way is a member. Like the Milky Way, M31 is a giant spiral-shaped disk of stars, with a bulbous central hub of older stars.⁴

While Figure 3 presents the distant galaxies, Figure 4 shows actual atoms that are vibrating so fast that only light zones could be captured as an indication of their existence. Figure 5 presents atoms of lithium guided in orbits by electromagnetic fields that carry them around and along, or in a path parallel with, the wire-so-called atom trap.⁷ Scientists at the University of Science and Technology of China used images of carbon-60 molecules made with a scanning tunneling microscope to determine the orientation of the molecules of Buckminsterfullerene (Buckyballs) sitting on a silicon surface (Figure 6).⁸

Figure 7 depicts a sub-atomic particle "pion" entering from the left and striking a proton, which produces two uncharged particles.⁹ Just as it is difficult to look at the surface of Venus with its thick atmosphere, it is a demanding task to look at a naked electron because of its self-made cloak of virtual particles. The contemporary experiments in nuclear physics provide increasing evidence on virtual particles that materialize into and dematerialize out of currently detectable energy fields.

Is the interatomic space between the electrons and nuclei, as well as the space between the planets and stars, really an empty space-a vacuum? Until about a century ago, the vacuum was just a vague philosophical concept to denote a complete emptiness. It took the advent of quantum theory to indicate that there was more to the vacuum than its name suggests. Early in 20th century, M. Planck found that one of his equations for the energy of a hot body comprised a term that did not depend on temperature. Even at absolute zero the body would have some residual energy. If the known particles stop their motion at absolute zero, where could this energy come from? Other researchers, including Einstein, speculated about a similar phenomenon.¹⁰

In 1925, R Mulliken found experimental evidence of this phantom energy in the spectrum of boron monoxide by analyzing the frequency of its spectral lines. Two years later, W. Heisenberg put this "energy from nowhere" on its modern foundations with his uncertainty principle. All these works indicate that even empty space, the vacuum, is seething with energy. For example, vacuum energy fluctuations cause random "noise" in electronic circuits, imposing limits on the level to which signals can be amplified. Van der Waals forces, the feeble attractive forces that allow real gases to be turned into liquids, come from the distortion of vacuum energy by molecules. This same vacuum energy also explains why cooling alone will never freeze liquid helium. Unless pressure is applied, vacuum energy fluctuations prevent liquid helium atoms from getting close enough to trigger solidification. Even fluorescent strip lighting relies on the causeless, random energy fluctuations of the vacuum state. When atoms of mercury vapor are excited by the electrical discharge in the tube, their spontaneous emission of photons is triggered by vacuum fluctuations knocking them out of their unstable energy state.¹⁰

On the other end of the matter scale, astronomers are detecting so-called gamma-ray bursts (GRB), which are considered the most powerful explosions in the universe. Gamma rays are very high-energy photons coming from the depths of outer space, with unknown origins. The bursts, which occur almost daily, shine a billion times brighter than any other phenomenon in the sky. They last anywhere from a few milliseconds to several minutes, then disappear, followed by afterglows that are visible for a few hours or days at x-ray and optical wavelengths. Telescopes pointed toward a recent gamma-ray burst, called GRB 970228, found an optical afterglow that persisted for weeks.^11-13

With no two bursts ever detected from the same direction, the question arises: What exactly is the Earth in the middle of? One possible answer is that Earth is about in the middle of an eternal and infinite universe (if we assume, just conceptually, that something infinitely large can have a center).

Numerous hypotheses suggesting limits to either the smallest particle within micro-space, or to the furthest galaxy constellation, have been proposed and defeated. This trend attributes significant probability to an opposing hypothesis: The universe is infinitely large, and breaking up the elemental particles will bring in ever-smaller entities, forever. It is likely that we will continue reaching further and further in any if these directions as our knowledge, instrumentation, and detectors become more advanced.

It seems that the limits of our realm are beyond anyone's reach. Our explorations can only lead to a further increase in knowledge. Are we hopelessly lost in an infinite and eternal space, or are we endlessly rich because of the limitless resources around us?

The key to this dilemma is to be found in our capacity to mobilize our potential for studying and understanding the material phenomena in our world.

MOTIVATING STUDENTS TO LEARN

Motivation is popularly thought to be essential to learning. Clearly, the urgency of a problem increases our attention. However, there are other driving forces, more challenging, more powerful, and closer to our vision of ourselves, we ought to invoke and mobilize.

The feeling of achievement that follows learning is a valuable motor that drives students to study. It should be demonstrated to students that they can access the existing knowledge and understand it to their satisfaction. For that purpose, a course should begin with relatively simple educational problems to ensure that the largest number of students has experienced this accomplishment. If such a strategy were prolonged, however, a point of saturation would be reached and students would lose motivation to engage in trivial repetitions of something they already are confident with. Therefore, the ceiling should be raised and more complex challenges should be introduced at the right moment. However, more demanding tasks should bring greater rewards. It should be demonstrated to students that the long-sighted concepts intrinsically comprise vivid generalizations and ingenious principles that are applicable to a broader domain of phenomena.

Figure 8 and Figure 9 ^14-17 present examples where general principles can be observed in systems at apparently very differing levels.

The systems shown in Figure 8 are correlated by very familiar mathematical concepts: The magnitude of the gravitational force F_g on an electron is given by Newton's gravitational law:

(1)

Where G is Newton's gravitational constant, m₁ and m₂ are the respective masses, and r is the distance between the entities in question.

The magnitude of the electrostatic force F_e between two charged objects separated by distance r, can be calculated by Coulomb's electrostatic force law:

(2)

Where k_c is Coulomb's constant and q₁, q₂ are the electric charges of each object, respectively. Charges of the same sign exert repulsive forces on one another, while charges of opposite sign attract.

The mathematical forms of these two force laws are analogous, which in itself is thought-provoking. (These) . . . equation(s) show the intimate connection between microcosmos and macrocosmos.¹⁸

The phenomena presented in Figure 9 can be described as the relatively rapid entry of a portion of one substance through an interface separating two (fluid) fields. Many authors have hypothesized on wave and radiation energy background of phenomena at the broadest scale, from the cosmological to sub-atomic levels.¹⁹

Projecting our knowledge about phenomena observed at one level to other levels brings us through and beyond the barriers and limits of understanding our world. We should not hesitate to draw students' attention above the horizon, ahead of temporarily unexplained aspects.

We should not be afraid to tell students where the limits of current knowledge in materials lie. It is indeed stimulating to show that there are domains where science has not reached yet, and it might be their generation that breaks through.

At the same time, existing knowledge, proven facts and recognized orderliness should be given due appreciation. The discovered pearls should be displayed in their intrinsic clarity and beauty (Figures 10, 11, 12, 13, and 14).

Astronomers have obtained their most comprehensive map yet of our region of the cosmos. This survey covers 141,000 galaxies within three billion light-years.²⁰ The data from "The Boomerang Project" (Balloon Observations of Millimetric Extragalactic Radiation and Geophysics) imply that the universe will go on expanding forever. In this research, the scientists have produced highly accurate maps of the cosmic microwave background radiation. Figure 10 shows an image of cosmic radiation overlaid on the sky above Antarctica to indicate fluctuations as they would appear if photographed by a microwave-light-sensitive 35 mm camera. The Boomerang team is preparing for a flight of a balloon-borne telescope in the foreground.²¹

The International Space Station (ISS), with its goals of scientific and technological research, is a good example how the international community can manage global projects.²² The ISS labs will provide a unique environment for many aspects of research into materials. For example, in the field of high-performance materials, the ISS is expected to be a testing site for new technologies and could aid in the development of high-performance industrial materials. Micro-gravity conditions will aid the development of new polymers for use in semiconductors.

The extended arm of mathematics, artificial intelligence, with its means, computers, should be used to release the creative aspects of learning. There are powerful tools at our disposition, mathematics with its prolific branches being among the most vital. The mathematical concept of stochastic processes provides the probable scenario for understanding an infinite and eternal world of matter forms that are always subject to some degree of uncertain motion. The deterministic concepts in mathematics provide logical microscopes and telescopes that enable us to see further into inextinguishable material forms.

In mathematics, fractals are any geometric shapes that exhibit self-similarity. The term fractal, derived from the Latin word fractus (fragmented or broken), was coined by mathematician B. Mandelbrot. Since its introduction in 1975, the concept of the fractal has given rise to a new system of geometry that has had a significant impact in diverse scientific fields including materials science, physical chemistry, and fluid mechanics (Figure 11)²³.

Fractal geometry, with its concepts of self-similarity and non-integer dimensionality, has been applied increasingly in statistical mechanics, notably when dealing with physical systems consisting of seemingly random features. For example, fractal simulations have been used to plot the distribution of galaxy clusters throughout the universe and to study problems related to fluid turbulence. Fractal geometry also has contributed much to computer graphics. Fractal algorithms have made it possible to generate lifelike images of highly complicated matter forms.²⁴

The hypothesis that the space explored thus far is filled with matter is gaining increasing support.^19,25-29 Prodigious and everlasting matter assumes infinitely diverse forms of motion. Our understanding of deterministic relations that rule in this diversity of matter progresses in virtually all directions and the materials scientists continue to reveal further mutations.

The attractiveness of this inexhaustible variety of material forms should be put forward as a source of inspiration for students (Figures 12 and 13)^30-31.

Presenting to students a selection of artifacts and figures similar to the above-shown illustrations, in advance of lectures on the structure of materials, can be quite stimulating. A number of questions can be initiated and the discussion can be channeled to become a constructive introduction to the course.² The application of graphs and figures has enormous impact in knowledge transfer in material science courses. Mathematical models and equations, however powerful in modeling the laws and relations between the material forms, should be abundantly complemented by illustrations. Any engineer will agree that no text can substitute for appropriate sketches, diagrams, layouts and other figures. The meaning of the attribute "appropriate" includes not only the quality of being correct, but equally importantly, the figure should be clear, instructive, and inspiring (Figures 14 and 15).^1,32,33

Energy, and, hence, some form of motion, is an intrinsic characteristic of all matter forms. Any arbitrary entity continuously fluctuates its attributes due to its global motion and the motion of its structural constituents. The analogies of motion patterns such as diffusion and rotation are very inspiring. For example, there is an abundance of circular motion intrinsic to matter forms: Spin, rotation, and the

flow can be observed from galactic to subatomic levels. The concept of vortices is increasingly promoted in theories of fundamental forces. The contemporary sub-atomic particle colliders incorporate "vertex detectors."^34-37 Figures 16, 17, and 18 offer examples of vortices from the macroscopic to the microscopic levels. ^37-39

We should not deprive students of the vision of infinite and eternal motion of matter forms (Figure 19)⁴⁰. On the contrary, advantage should be taken of those analogies. Material forms should be explained drawing examples from the whole available spectrum of observed phenomena, from quarks to spiral galaxies. Could it be that the observations of outer space provide relations that can be used to understand also the inner structure of matter, at levels that are currently beyond our reach? Can we imagine that we are sitting on the surface of a subatomic particle, and that we are looking through our telescopes at the structure of an atom from inside?

Among the other contributions, quantum mechanics applied to electron clouds in metallics has provided us with a means of observing crystallographic planes. Scanning tunneling is based on the local conductivity of surfaces in which the wavelike properties of electrons permit them to "tunnel" beyond the surface of a solid. The probability of finding such tunneling electrons decreases exponentially as the distance from the surface increases. The scanning tunneling microscope makes use of this extreme sensitivity to distance. The sharp tip of a tungsten needle is positioned a few nanometers from the sample surface. Voltage is applied between the probe tip and the surface, causing electrons to tunnel across the gap. As the probe is scanned over the surface, it registers variations in the tunneling current and this information is processed to provide a topographical image of the surface. The scanning tunneling microscope, a simple method for creating a direct image of the atomic structure of surfaces, reveals in Figure 20 that geometrically precise matter forms are indeed present in our world.

Uninterrupted periodicities can be very attractive visually. But for an unrestricted face-centered-cubic (110) surface of nickel, the rectangular surface unit cell is boring. This boredom compelled a scientist to use his computer to enhance the image with blue coloring.⁴¹

The atomic structural image (made by means of scanning tunneling microscope) shown in Figure 21 provides insight into the threshold between prime radiant flow and the interference structures called matter. In the right foci of the ellipse, a cobalt atom has been inserted. In the left foci of the ellipse, a phantom of the real atom has appeared. The appearance of the phantom atom was not expected.⁴² The ellipsoid coral was constructed by placing 36 cobalt atoms on a copper surface. This image is presented here to provide a visual demonstration of the attributes of matter arising from the harmonious interference of background radiation.⁴²

Processing and modifying true images are powerful means for enhancing the attractiveness and clarity of information. The adapted, colorful presentations, touched with art, enhance curiosity and radically improve the efficiency of knowledge transfer. Of course, the fact that the image was modified and adapted should always be brought to the attention of students. The access to raw data and the possibility of differing interpretation must not be denied.

The immense domain to be covered by materials engineering, and the volume of corresponding knowledge accumulated thus far, do not present ballast-they present wealth. These magnitudes should not be denied, they should be emphasized by choosing the appropriate intellectual magnifications. Matter forms are arranged within levels; at the onset of their voyage into materials science it will be encouraging and stimulating for students to know that we are able to observe the galactic and micro-cosmological proportions of material forms. The time, being relative as it is, invested in an unbounded introduction into the universe of matter forms will be repaid by mobilizing the curiosity, attention, and inventiveness of future engineers.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors acknowledge help in correcting and editing this text by Annibale Izzo (www.passdesign.com/index.htm).

A HYPOTHESIS ON THE ETERNITY AND INFINITY OF MATTER AND MOTION, AND ON THE NON-EXISTENCE OF VACUUM

The circular formation of all mass, whether terrestrial or microscopic, is a result of the infinite nature of matter. The detectable configurations assumed by matter are the consequences of energy field formations. Hurricanes spiral on the surface of the earth causing large changes in atmospheric pressure. Vertices circumambulate on the surface of electrons, causing electromagnetic forces. A galaxy spirals because of analogous phenomena on a broader scale. All observed formations are confined or closed systems of energy fluctuations and radiations. A microscopic particle is also a confined system of electromagnetic radiation, having the same physical characteristics and properties as macro-cosmic particles (planets and stellar objects). The universe is eternal and infinite, vacuum does not exist, and motion in one or another mode is eternal. All matter forms exist as interference patterns of primordial radiation and vibrations in the infinite space; discrete levels produce entities separated by galactic proportions. Primordial motion-radiation, vibration, and other forms of motion-pervades all space and matter. Matter is arranged within the structural levels, and the entities at a higher level, here arbitrarily denoted by "A", are of galactic proportions relative to the matter organized at a lower level (arbitrarily denoted) "B". Therefore, we can observe motion of entities at level A as a global motion of particles or bodies, while motion of matter at level B appears, within the same space and time, as a flow. Further matter forms, arbitrarily denoted "C", "D", etc., occupy the space at further structural levels, at scales that mutually differ at galactic proportions. This scenario involves the enormous scale of motion spectra, starting from global motion of entities along predictable trajectories and converging via diffusion, vibration, and radiation toward further forms of motion. Since matter and energy cannot be separated, it is beneficial to hypothesize, at least to some extent, on the nature of fundamental carriers of energy: gravity force, inertia, and electromagnetic force. Contemporary theoreticians have provided several hypotheses on unifying the above fundamental forces. Gravity, inertia, and electromagnetic forces are attributed to cosmic radiant pressure and shadowing by matter. The prime cause for the inverse square law is a natural result of shadowing geometry with distance. An inner surface gravity and/or radiant pressure limit exist when the radiant flow is totally shielded by large planets. Gravity is a consequence of infinity of the universe, diffusivity of radiations, and the pressure effect in the vicinity of integral, structured systems. Integral bodies (such as satellites and apples) have their own radiation and vibrations, and their integrity suppresses the statistically, evenly distributed pressure of external radiation of "ether" from outer space, within the shadow space between two bodies. Gravity is a form of average cosmic pressure, a consequence of the randomness of interactions of radiations and vibrations coming approximately equally from outer space toward the center of an integrated entity. This equality is disturbed in the space that separates two bodies because they shadow each other from gravity pressure, which results in the mutual attractive forces following Newton's law. Inertia is a consequence of diffusion of the ether. When an entity (an integral body) is set in motion, front volume becomes saturated (soaked) with ether and becomes more resistant to diffusion. The end part, on the contrary, is less affected (less saturated with ether), and this initiates a field flow, which acts in the same direction as the existing motion vector of the integral body. The statistical fluctuations in the ether give rise to a field flow through which the object moves. If the object accelerates, its constituent particles feel the grip of this magnetic field, whose resistance manifests itself as inertia. Electromagnetic force is a consequence of global spinning knots (clusters) of vortices. Protons are clusters of vortices: Axes of vortices intercept in the center of a proton, and the whole system spins in a similar way to hurricanes that are carried by the overall rotation of the earth's surface. Protons emit flow of matter at level A by means of vortices, like hurricanes on their surface. Constituents of level A are larger than the constituents of level B-this difference has galactic proportions. At the same time, flow of matter at level B diffuses toward the center of the proton. This is why two protons repulse each other: Their spinning brings, at random, a sufficient number of "hurricane eyes" in mutual conflict. Electrons, on the contrary, have on their surface eddy whirlpools (similar to water whirlpools) that suck in the A-level matter. A number of whirlpools are active on the surface of a spinning electron, and this is how an electron is attracted to a proton: "hurricanes" and "whirlpools" attract each other. At the same time, electrons emit (shine) B-level matter that further helps the attraction between an electron and a proton. Neutrons can be hypothesized as soft clusters of A and B levels of matter, entrapped between the hard protons. Neutrons are continuously dissolved and reproduced due to the close and active emissions from protons. Neutrons are a consequence of the absence of vacuum-they fill the space between protons. The space between protons and electrons is filled by an intense flow at levels A and B: electromagnetic force. Thermal energy is the average result of interactions of diverse radiation and fluctuation wave fields that diffuse through matter forms from all possible directions. Heat flow follows gradients in these average vibrations at various levels and states of matter forms. Chaotic processes are a consequence of the infinity and eternity of matter and motion. Deterministic relations are consequences of the absence of vacuum.

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For more information, contact Sead Spuzic, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Mechanical Engineering Department, P.O. Box 1763, Dhahran, Eastern Province 31261, Saudi Arabia; +966-3-860-2840; fax +966-3-860-2949; e-mail seadhana@kfupm.edu.sa.